Sexual health

Background info

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are venereal infections - that is, they are spread by heterosexual or homosexual contact with an infected person. More than 20 organisms have been identified as causing STIs, and they affect more than 200 to 400 million people worldwide. The 'classical' STIs are gonorrhoea and syphilis, but HIV/AIDS, hepatitis B, chlamydia, genital warts (caused by human papillomavirus (HPV), genital herpes, donovanosis and chancroid are all infections which can be transmitted through sexual contact.

STIs are a major public health problem. The incidence of infection with STIs in Australia is rising. Cases are more often reported among sexually active teenagers and young adults. Many STIs cause no symptoms, which means that many individuals are unaware they have an infection.

Many STIs can result in significant morbidity and mortality, particularly among women. If diagnosed early, most STIs can be effectively treated. If left untreated they may lead to cancer, pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy, infertility, spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, and low birthweight for infants. Evidence suggests that other STIs facilitate the transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). It is for this reason that STI control is now receiving higher priority worldwide.

Four bacterial STIs frequently reported in Australia, particularly among Indigenous Australians, are; syphilis, gonorrhoea, chlamydia and donovanosis.

Syphilis is caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum. The infection is especially contagious during the primary phase when sores are present, and generally not contagious during the latent phases. Untreated syphilis can lead to serious damage to the nervous system and other body organs, or death. The disease progresses through several phases that may overlap one another:

primary syphilis - a chancre sore develops at the site of infection from two to four weeks after infection has occurred;
secondary syphilis - one week to six months after the chancre heals a pink rash appears;
latent syphilis - usually no symptoms, and the infected person is not contagious.
tertiary/late syphilis - serious problems, including heart, eye, brain and spinal cord damage, blindness or death.

Gonorrhea is caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae. The disease is highly contagious and easily transmitted. Symptoms develop from two to thirty days after infection. Early symptoms include a yellowish discharge, irritation of the external genitals, and painful and frequent urination.

Chlamydia, which is caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis, can result in sterility in men and women. The most common bacterial STI in Australia, particularly among females, chlamydia is known as the 'silent' infection as it often does not produce symptoms.

Donovanosis (also called granuloma inguinale) is a chronic bacterial infection causing painless ulcer-like lesions around the genital region. Genital organs may be severely destroyed by this infection, which is capable of spreading to other parts of the body.

An individual is at risk of developing an STI as a result of their sexual behaviour. In improving the sexual health of Australians, prevention of STIs must be a key focus. Prevention and control of STIs can be achieved by the promotion of safe-sex messages. Safe-sex is having sex in a way that reduces or eliminates an individual's risk of infection with an STI. Condoms are effective barriers to most STIs.

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Review of STIs among Indigenous people

Much higher rates of notification of sexually transmitted diseases occur among Indigenous than non-Indigenous people. (Some caution should be exercised in the interpretation of notification rates, which are known to be incomplete for STIs. There is some evidence that, unlike most other health-related collections, the notification of STIs is more complete for Indigenous than non-Indigenous people.) Some STIs, particularly donovanosis, occur predominantly among Indigenous Australians. The notification rates for all bacterial STIs are substantially higher among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. In 2003, the notification rates for people identified as Indigenous were higher than rates for the total population for gonorrhoea, syphilis, and chlamydia [1].

Gonorrhea

The notification rate of gonorrhoea for Indigenous people living in WA, SA and the NT in 2003 was 1,403 cases per 100,000 population (based on 2,151 cases notified), compared with a rate of 29 per 100,000 (999 cases notified) for non-Indigenous people [1]. The disease can be successfully treated with oral antibiotics, but some strains of N. gonorrhoeae in urban Australia are penicillin-resistant [2]. Ceftriaxone is used as treatment in communities in Queensland, for example, where penicillin resistant strains have been found [3]. People with gonorrhoea often also have chlamydia, so the infections are often treated at the same time.

Syphilis

The notification rate of syphilis for Indigenous people living in WA, SA and the NT in 2003 was 303 cases per 100,000 population (based on 381 cases notified), compared with a rate of 3 per 100,000 (100 cases notified) for non-Indigenous people [1].

Chlamydia

Notification rates for chlamydia were much higher for Indigenous people living in WA, SA and the NT in 2003 than for their non-Indigenous counterparts: 1,323 cases per 100,000 population (based on 2,049 cases notified) compared with 161 per 100,000 (5,306 cases notified) [1].

Donovanosis

In 1988, donovanosis was 'almost exclusively found among Aboriginal people of the Central Desert and Goldfields with extension into Northern Western Australia, the Northern Territory and among Aboriginal and Islander people of far North Queensland' [4]. In 1996-1999, 88.6% of cases of donovanosis were from Indigenous people and 2.3% from non-Indigenous people, and 9.2% reported were unknown [5]. In 1992-1999 in Western Australia, there were 133 cases of donovanosis reported in Indigenous people and 7 from non-Indigenous people.

References

  1. National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research (2004) 2004 annual surveillance report: HIV/AIDS, viral hepatitis and sexually transmissible infections in Australia. Sydney: National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research
  2. Bowden FJ, Tabrizi SN, Garland SM, Fairley CK (2002) Sexually transmitted infections: new diagnostic approaches and treatments. Medical Journal of Australia;176(11):551-557
  3. Bradford D (2000) Current testing methods and penicillin resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae in North Queensland. Communicable Diseases Intelligence;24(7):194
  4. Hendy S, Hudson B, Hart G. NVCA statement on Aboriginal health. Venereology 1988;1(2):69-70.
  5. Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (1999) The health and welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples 1999. (ABS catalogue no. 4704.0) Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics and the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare

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Plain language materials

Background info

What are sexually transmissible infections?

Sexually transmissible infections (STIs) are infections you can get by having sex with someone who has an infection. (Sexually transmissible infections are also known as sexually transmitted infections, sexually transmitted diseases and venereal diseases.)

STIs are usually passed by having intercourse ( a man's penis in a woman's vagina) , but they can also be passed through anal sex (a man's penis in a partner's anus – the partner can be either male or female) , oral sex ( a man's penis in a partner's mouth, or a partner's mouth or tongue in a woman's vagina), or skin-to-skin contact.

Anybody who is sexually active can be infected if they do not practice safe sex – you can't tell just by looking at a person that they have an STI.

STIs may be caused by bacteria, viruses or parasites (see ‘What are the main sexually transmissible infections?').

What are the main sexually transmissible infections?

The main STIs are:

•  chlamydia;

•  gonorrhoea;

•  syphilis;

•  genital herpes;

•  human papilloma virus (HPV);

•  hepatitis; and

•  HIV (the virus that causes AIDS).

Other STIs include:

•  donovanosis

•  scabies, and

•  pubic lice (crabs).

What are the symptoms of sexually transmissible infections?

The symptoms of an STI vary according to the type of STI, and sometimes there are no symptoms at all. Common symptoms can include:

•  Unusual discharge from the penis or vagina

•  Pain during sex or passing urine

•  Sores, blisters, ulcers, warts or rashes in the genital area or on the tongue and/or throat for people who have oral sex

•  Itchin ess, irritation or pain around the vagina

•  Pain in or around the anus for people who have anal sex

•  A scaly rash on the palms of your hands and the soles of your feet

•  Persistent diarrhoea

•  Fever and/or flu-like symptoms

•  Sore throats in people who have oral sex

•  Unusual infections, unexplained fatigue, night sweats and weight loss

How are sexually transmissible infections diagnosed?

The ways of diagnosing an STI vary according to the type of STI.

STIs like chlamydia and gonorrhoea are usually diagnosed by finding the organism in the discharge from the penis or vagina, or from sores, ulcers and the like.

The diagnosis of HIV, syphilis and hepatitis B usually relies on detection of antibodies (part of the body's response to the infection) in the blood.

Scabies and pubic lice are usually diagnosed by direct isolation of the organism

How can sexually transmissible infections be avoided?

The only sure way to avoid getting an STI is by not having sex.

If you have sex, you can reduce your risk of getting an STI by only having sex with someone who isn't having sex with anyone else and who doesn't have an STI.

Most STIs can be avoided to a large extent by practising safe sex – that is, using a condom or female condom or a dam (a thin piece of latex placed over the anal or vulval area during oral sex).

Can sexually transmissible infections be treated?

Most sexually transmitted diseases can be cured if they are diagnosed and treated in their early stages. The treatment used depends on the type of infection (see ‘What are the main sexually transmitted infections?').

There are no cures for STIs caused by viruses, such as herpes and hepatitis B.

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Plain language review of STIs among Indigenous people

Content for this section is under development

Policies and strategies

2005

Sexual Health and Blood-borne Virus Program (2005)
Western Australian Aboriginal sexual health strategy 2005-2008.
Perth: Department of Health
View report (PDF - 346 KB)

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2004

Australian Federation of AIDS Organisations (2004)
National HIV/AIDs and STIs strategy 2005-2008. AFAO response to the consultation draft.
Newtown: Australian Federation of AIDS Organisations
View report (PDF - 168KB)

Australian Federation of AIDS Organisations (2004)
The 5th National HIV/AIDS and STIs strategy: responding to the consultation draft.
Newtown: Australian Federation of AIDS Organisations
View report (PDF - 116KB)

The National Indigenous Australians' Sexual Health Strategy 1996-97 to 1998-99 (NIASHS) provides a comprehensive approach to preventing the spread of HIV and other STIs in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. To download a PDF version of the report from the Office for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health site by click here.

Information about the National Communicable Disease Surveillance Strategy can be obtained as a PDF file downloadable from the Communicable Disease page of the Commonwealth Department of Health Care's Internet site.

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Guidelines

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2002)
Guidelines for the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases.
Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
View summary (HTML)
View guidelines (HTML)
View guidelines (PDF - 516kb)

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1998)
Guidelines for the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases.
Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
View guidelines (HTML)
View guidelines (PDF - 1.1MB - large file warning!)

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1995)
Guidelines for health education and risk reduction activities.
Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
View guidelines (HTML)

Health Canada (1998)
Canadian STD guidelines for primary health care providers.
Ottawa: Bureau of HIV/AIDS, STD and TB.
View guidelines (PDF - 1.3MB - large file warning!)

Territory Health Services (1998)
Guidelines for the investigation and treatment of infants at risk of congenital syphilis in the Top End of the Northern Territory.
Casuarina: Territory Health Services.
View guidelines (PDF - 50.4kb)

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Programs and projects

Indigenous Health Workers Sexual and Reproductive Health Skills
This project is an innovative training program developed by Family Planning Queensland (FPQ), aiming to improve the sexual and reproductive health of Indigenous communities throughout rural Queensland, and reduce the high rates of sexually transmitted infections, unintended pregnancies and sexual assault.
Over a three year period (2008-2010), training will be provided to Indigenous Health Workers from Aboriginal Medical Services and other community-controlled health services.
View information: FPQ
View website: Family Planning Queensland

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Health promotion resources

Australian Federation of AIDS Organisations (2004)
Sistergirls say - keep yourself covered (poster).
Canberra: Australian Federation of AIDS Organisations

The Australian Federation of AIDS Organisations (AFAO) launched two national peer-based posters in Sydney on 30 October 2004, as a health promotion resource for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Sistergirls. The posters were designed to: empower Indigenous Sistergirls and transgender communities by raising HIV/AIDS awareness; address underlying issues such as isolation and discrimination; and promote positive self-esteem which in turn promotes individuals to engage in safer sexual practices, such as condom usage. The posters were developed in response to the National Indigenous gay and transgender consultation report and sexual health strategy, as was the AFAO strategy for responding to sexual abuse of young Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander gay men and Sistergirls.

Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet abstract

The National Indigenous gay and transgender consultation report and sexual health strategy (PDF - 208KB), and the AFAO strategy for responding to sexual abuse of young Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander gay men and Sistergirls (PDF - 2MB - large file warning!), can be accessed online at the AFAO website.

For further information about the posters or to obtain copies visit the AFAO website, or contact:Australian Federation of AIDS Organisations, Level 1, 222 King Street, Newtown NSW 2042; PO Box 51, Newtown NSW 2042; ph: (02) 9557 9399, fax: (02) 9557 9867.

Australasian Society for HIV Medicine (ASHM) (2004)
Talking together: contemporary issues in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health: HIV, Hepatitis and Sexual Health. A distance learning package for those working in Indigenous health.
Darlinghurst, NSW: Australasian Society for HIV Medicine (ASHM)

This resource was developed in collaboration with the Indigenous Australians' Sexual Health Committee (IASHC) and funded by the Office for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health (OATSIH), Department of Health and Ageing. It was designed for use by general practitioners and other interested clinicians and health care workers. The package contains a copy of the video (a CD version is available) 'Talking Together', a users guide with training materials and activities, and a copy of the ASHM monograph HIV/Viral Hepatitis - a guide for primary care. The manual offers practical advice for risk assessment, testing, diagnosis, and basic principles of management of HIV and viral hepatitis. The incorporation of viral hepatitis reflects the trends in public policy and medical practice towards locating HIV/AIDS within the broader public health and sexual health context.

Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet abstract

'Let's talk about sex' educational training package.
An innovative package for people working and living with young Aboriginal people has been produced by the Eastern Perth Public and Community Health Unit, with support from Yirra Yaakin Noongar Theatre and the Derbarl Yerrigan Health Service. This educational training package addresses, without shame, issues surrounding teenage sexuality, puberty, relationships, STIs and pregnancy. The package is designed for Aboriginal sexual health workers, youth workers, health professionals,teachers, parents and community groups. For more information or to purchase a package, contact the Eastern Perth Public and Community Health Unit, PO Box 1296, Perth, Western Australia, 6845; phone: 08 9224 1625, fax: 9224 1612.

Kirketon Road Centre (2003)
Health for all - drug, alcohol and STD pamphlet series.
Kings Cross: The Kirketon Road Centre
View HealthInfoNet abstract

Queensland Health's Sexual Health Program has produced Indigenous-specific brochures and factsheets on chlamydia, gonorrhoea, syphilis and HIV/AIDS.

'STI control manual for Aboriginal communities' is a resource for remote Aboriginal Health Services and clinic workers in northern and central Australia to use in designing and implementing STI control and HIV prevention programs. To download a PDF version of the manual from the Office for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health click here.

Tristate STI/HIV Project (2001)
Well Men's Check.
Casuarina: Tristate STI/HIV Project

The following excerpt is reproduced with kind permission of the Northern Territory Disease Control Bulletin from the article:
Smith K, Beever W. (2001) Well Men's Check. Northern Territory Disease Control Bulletin;8(4):16-17.

The Wells Men's Check (WMC) resources were developed by the Tristate STD/HIV project with wide consultation and input from male Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal health workers practicing in Central Australia. The Tristate Project came into being as a response to the high rates of STI's in central Australia and potential for an HIV epidemic. Key result areas of the project include: clinical management of clients with STIs, health care provider education and training, STI/HIV surveillance systems, education and prevention in communities, and coordination of STI/HIV control activities including facilitating exchange of information.

The aim of the 'Well Men's Check' is to increase access to health care by Aboriginal males in Central Australia. Community men have received the concept of 'Well Men's Checks' positively. This is largely attributed to the extensive consultation process that took place in the development of resources. These checks provide a crucial starting point in changing behavioural patterns in Aboriginal men seeking health treatment and care. The aim of the 'Well Men's Check' resources is to facilitate Aboriginal Health Workers to conduct health checks on all men over 15 years of age in their community. The use of diagrams on the form and flip chart were designed to support varying degrees of literacy. Ideally these checks are to be carried out on a yearly basis to monitor changes in health status and initiate early intervention.

The resources include a form for recording the check-up (based on the adult health check in the Central Australian Rural Practitioners Association (CARPA) Standard Treatment Manual) and a flip chart. The flip chart is designed to help practitioners explain to men what will be happening during the checks, giving reasons behind the individual checks, ideal ranges for blood sugar levels and blood pressure etc, and brief intervention messages. It can be utilised either for group use, or one-to-one education in the clinic.

WMC resources have been distributed to all health services and clinics in Central Australia. Training in the use of the resource is being coordinated by the Sexual Health Unit, Central Australian Remote Health Development Services and Ngaanyatjarra health Service. Training is aimed at male AHW's, RAN's and community men and takes place at Men's Health workshops.

For further information on the Well Men's Check resources contact Kirsty Smith, ph: 08 89517553, fax: 08 89517555

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Lessons learned

Case studies

Currently no information has been collected

Evaluations

Currently no information has been collected

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Published resources

Journal articles

2008

Bandea CI, Debattista J, Joseph K, Igietseme J, Timms P, et al. (2008)
Chlamydia trachomatis serovars among strains isolated from members of rural Indigenous communities and urban populations in Australia.
Journal of Clinical Microbiology;46(1):355-356
View abstract: PubMed
View website: PubMed

Bowden FJ, Fethers K (2008)
"Let's not talk about sex": reconsidering the public health approach to sexually transmissible infections in remote Indigenous populations in Australia.
Medical Journal of Australia;188(3):182-184
View abstract: Medical Journal of Australia
View website: Medical Journal of Australia

2007

Bandea CI, Debattista J, Joseph K, Igietseme J, Timms P, et al. (2007)
Chlamydia Trachomatis Serovars among rural Indigenous communities and urban populations in Australia.
Journal of Clinical Microbiology;
View abstract: PubMed
View website: PubMed

Dunn C, Garton L, Lynch K (2007)
'The Chlamydia Project' improving knowledge of, and testing rates for Chlamydia among young people in a remote Aboriginal setting.
Sexual Health;4(4):286-287
View abstract: Sexual Health
View website: CSIRO Publishing

Kelly J, Luxford Y (2007)
Yaitya tirka madlanna warratinna: exploring what sexual health nurses need to know and do in order to meet the sexual health needs of young Aboriginal women in Adelaide.
Collegian;14(3):15-20
View abstract: PubMed
View website: National Center for Biotechnology Information

Larkins SL, Page RP, Panaretto KS, Scott R, Mitchell MR, et al. (2007)
Attitudes and behaviours of young Indigenous people in Townsville concerning relationships, sex and contraception: the 'U Mob Yarn Up' project.
Medical Journal of Australia;186(10):513-518
View article: Medical Journal of Australia (HTML)
View article: Medical Journal of Australia (PDF - 220KB)
View website: Medical Journal of Australia

Stark A (2007)
Needs analysis - youth access to sexual and reproductive health services: a snapshot.
Northern Territory Disease Control Bulletin;14(4):31-34
View publication: The Northern Territory Disease Control Bulletin (PDF -583KB)
View website: Department of Health and Community Services

Stark AM, Hope A (2007)
Aboriginal women's stories of sexually transmissible infection transmission and condom use in remote central Australia.
Sexual health;4(4):237-242
View abstract: PubMed
View website: National Center for Biotechnology Information

Wright MR, Dance PR, Thompson SC, Giele CM (2007)
Fulfilling prophecy?: sexually transmitted infections and HIV in Indigenous people in Western Australia.
Aboriginal and Islander Health Worker Journal;31(1):16-21
View website: AIHWJ

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2006

Panaretto KS, Dallachy D, Manessis V, Larkins S, Tabrizi S, et al. (2006)
Cervical smear participation and prevalence of sexually transmitted infections in women attending a community-controlled Indigenous health service in North Queensland.
Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health;30(2):171-176
View abstract: Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health (HTML)
View website: Public Health Association of Australia

Yohannes K, Roche P, Roberts A, Liu C, Firestone S, et al. (2006)
Australia's notifiable diseases status, 2004: annual report of the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System.
Communicable Diseases Intelligence;30(1):1-79
View website: Communicable Diseases Australia
View paper: CDI (HTML)
View paper: CDI (PDF)

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2005

Bowden FJ (2005)
Controlling HIV in Indigenous Australians [editorial].
Medical Journal of Australia;183(3):116-117
View paper (HTML)
View paper (PDF)

Mikhailovich K, Arabena K (2005)
Evaluating an Indigenous sexual health peer education project.
Health Promotion Journal of Australia;16(3):189-193
View HPJA abstract (PDF)

Molloy R, Greet B, Knight K (2005)
Don't let your community get bitten. Ask for a snake.
Australian Indigenous HealthBulletin;5(1): Brief report 1.
View HealthBulletin brief report



Wright MR, Giele CM, Dance PR, Thompson SC (2005)
Fulfilling prophecy?: sexually transmitted infections and HIV in Indigenous people in Western Australia.
Medical Journal of Australia;183(3):124-128
View paper (HTML)
View paper (PDF)

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2004

Mak DB, Johnson GH, Marshall LJ, Mein JK (2004)
Control of genital chlamydial infection in the Kimberley region of Western Australia.
Medical Journal of Australia;180(1):45
View paper (HTML)
View paper (PDF)

Nganampa Health Council (2004)
Nganampa Health Council annual report 2004.
Alice Springs, NT: Nganampa Health Council
View abstract: HealthBulletin
View report (PDF - 3.45MB - large file warning!)
View website: Nganampa Health Council

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2003

Adams M, de Kretser D, Holden C (2003)
Male sexual and reproductive health among the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population [editorial].
Rural and Remote Health;3 (online):153. Retrieved from http://rrh.deakin.edu.au
View article: Rural and Remote Health (HTML)
View article: Rural and Remote Health (PDF - 256KB)

Mak DB, Marshall LJ (2003)
Gonorrhoea, chlamydia and syphilis incidence in the Kimberley.
Communicable Diseases Intelligence;27(3):370-372
View full paper (HTML)
View full paper (PDF - 117KB)

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2002

Kearns T, Savage J, Peacock D (2001)
Northern Territory antibiotic resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae sentinel surveillance sites.
Northern Territory Disease Control Bulletin;8:5-9.
View full paper (PDF)

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2001

Miller PJ, Law M, Torzillo PJ, Kaldor J (2001)
Incident sexually transmitted infections and their risk factors in an Aboriginal community in Australia: a population based cohort study.
The Journal of Sexual Health & HIV;77(1):21-25.
View abstract

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Reports

2007

Department of Health and Community Services (2007)
Northern Territory sexual health and blood borne viruses unit surveillance update. (Vol. 8 No. 1, January-March 2007 & April-June 2007)
Darwin: Department of Health and Community Services
View report (PDF - 735KB)
View website: Department of Health and Community Services

Imrie J, Frankland A (2007)
HIV/AIDS, hepatitis and sexually transmissible infections in Australia: annual report of trends in behaviour 2007.
Sydney: National Centre in HIV Social Research
View report (PDF - 3.8MB - large file warning)
View website: National Centre in HIV Social Research

National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research (2007)
Bloodborne viral and sexually transmitted infections in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people: surveillance report 2007.
Sydney: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
View report (PDF - 1.0MB - large file warning)
View website: The National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research (NCHECR)

National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research (2007)
HIV/AIDS, viral hepatitis and sexually transmissible infections in Australia: Annual Surveillance Report 2007 (AIHW Catalogue no. PHE 92).
Sydney: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
View report (PDF - 1.2MB - large file warning)
View website: The National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research (NCHECR)

Ngaanyatjarra Health Service (2007)
Kungkaku yangupalaku tjukurrpa: stories for young women and young fellas: a look at sexual health for young people in the Ngaantjarra Lands and an education plan for the future.
Canberra: Ngaanyatjarra Health Service

Skov S, Murray R, Latif A (2007)
Sexually transmitted infections
In: Couzos S, Murray R, eds.
Aboriginal primary health care: an evidence-based approach. 3rd ed.
South Melbourne: Oxford University Press:622-673
View details: Oxford University Press

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2006

Atthowe J, Giele C, Kwan K, Mak D, Trainor M (2006)
The epidemiology of notifiable sexually transmitted infections and blood-borne viruses in Western Australia 1995 - 2004.
Perth: Department of Health, Western Australia
View report (PDF - 819 KB)

Australasian Society for HIV Medicine inc. (2006)
Australasian contact tracing manual: A practical handbook for health care providers managing people with HIV, viral hepatitis, other sexually transmissible infections (STIs) and HIV-related tuberculosis. (Edition 3)
Barton, ACT: Australasian Society for HIV Medicine inc.
View report (PDF - 1.16 MB - large file warning!)

Communicable Disease Control Directorate (2006)
Western Australian sexually transmitted infections Action Plan 2006-2008.
Perth: Department of Health
View report (PDF - 2.17 MB - large file warning!)

Department of Health and Community Services (2006)
Northern Territory sexual health and blood borne viruses unit surveillance update. (Vol. 7 No 1, January-March 2006 & April-June 2006)
Darwin: Department of Health and Community Services
View report (PDF - 965KB)
View website: Department of Health and Community Services

Department of Health and Community Services (2006)
Northern Territory sexual health and blood borne viruses unit surveillance update. (Vol. 7 No 2, July-September 2006 & October-December 2006)
Darwin: Department of Health and Community Services
View report (PDF - 189KB)
View website: Department of Health and Community Services

Lawrence C, Prestage G, Leishman B, Ross C, Muwadda W, et al. (2006)
Queensland survey of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men who have sex with men:2004.
Darlinghurst, NSW: National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research
View HealthInfoNet abstract
View report (1.7MB - large file warning!)
View website: National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research

Queensland Health (2006)
Queensland HIV, hepatitis C and sexually transmissIble infections strategy 2005-2011.
Brisbane: Queensland Government
View report (PDF - 857 KB)

Standing Committee on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health, Statistical Information Management Committee (2006)
National summary of the 2003 and 2004 jurisdictional reports against the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health performance indicators.
Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
View HealthInfoNet abstract
View report (HTML)
View website: AIHW

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2005

Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2005)
Health and welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples 2005.
Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare and the Australian Bureau of Statistics
View abstract: HealthBulletin
View report (PDF - 5.22MB - large file warning!)
View website: Australian Bureau of Statistics
View website: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare

Australian Research Centre in Sex Health and Society, La Trobe University (2005)
Evaluation of the national donovanosis eradication project 2001-2004.
Canberra: Department of Health and Ageing
View report (PDF - 664KB)
View website: Department of Health and Ageing

Clementson C (2005)
Contemporary issues in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health: HIV, hepatitis and sexual health.
Darlinghurst, NSW: Australasian Society for HIV Medicine
View report (PDF – 2.37MB – large file warning!)
View website: Australasian Society for HIV Medicine

Commonwealth of Australia (2005)
National Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander sexual health and blood borne virus strategy 2005-2008.
Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia
View report (HTML)
View report (PDF - 2MB - large file warning!)
View HealthInfoNet abstract

Department of Health and Community Services (2005)
Northern Territory sexual health and blood borne viruses unit surveillance update. (Vol. 6 No 1, January-March 2005 & April-June 2005)
Darwin: Department of Health and Community Services
View report (PDF - 223KB)
View website: Department of Health and Community Services

Department of Health and Community Services (2005)
Northern Territory sexual health and blood borne viruses unit surveillance update. (Vol. 6 No 2, July-September 2005 & October-December 2005)
Darwin: Department of Health and Community Services
View report (PDF - 862KB)
View website: Department of Health and Community Services

Miller M, Roche P, Yohannes K, et al. (2005)
Australia's notifiable diseases status, 2003: annual report of the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System.
Communicable Diseases Intelligence;29(1):1-60
View HealthInfoNet abstract
View report (PDF - 1.6MB - large file warning!)
View website

Morris K, Willis J, Anderson I, Croy S, McCall M (2005)
Research gaps in Indigenous sexual health: establishing evidence-based best practice for social and behavioural interventions: technical report.
Melbourne: Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society, La Trobe University
View report (PDF -1.03MB -large file warning!)
View website: Department of Health and Ageing

National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research (2005)
HIV/AIDS, viral hepatitis and sexually transmissible infections in Australia: annual surveillance report 2005.
Sydney: National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research
View report (PDF - 1.9MB - large file warning!)

Willis J, Anderson I, Morris K (2005)
Sexual health promotion for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people: a community guide to evidence-based best practice in social and behavioural interventions.
Melbourne: Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society, La Trobe University
View report (PDF -190KB)
View website: Department of Health and Ageing

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2004

Department of Health and Community Services (2004)
Northern Territory AIDS/STD Program surveillance update. (Vol. 5 No 1, January-March 2004 & April-June 2004)
Darwin: Department of Health and Community Services
View report (PDF - 236KB)
View website: Department of Health and Community Services

National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research (2004)
HIV/AIDS, viral hepatitis and sexually transmissible infections in Australia: annual surveillance report 2004.
Sydney: National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research
View report (PDF - 699KB)

Statistical Information Management Committee 2004 (2004)
National summary of the 2001 and 2002 jurisdictional reports against the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health performance indicators.
Canberra: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare
View HealthInfoNet abstract
View report (PDF - 962KB)

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2003

Department of Health and Community Services (2003)
Northern Territory AIDS/STD Program surveillance update. (Vol. 4 No 1, January-March 2003 & April-June 2003)
Darwin: Department of Health and Community Services
View report (PDF - 203KB)
View website: Department of Health and Community Services

Department of Health and Community Services (2003)
Northern Territory AIDS/STD Program surveillance update. (Vol. 4 No 2, July-September 2003 & October-December 2003)
Darwin: Department of Health and Community Services
View report (PDF - 200KB)
View website: Department of Health and Community Services

Queensland Government (2003)
Queensland Indigenous sexual health strategy 2003 to 2006.
Brisbane: Queensland Government
View HealthInfoNet abstract

Tropical Health Working Group of the Top End Division of General Practice (2003)
Tropical health in the Top End: an introduction for health practitioners.
Darwin: Top End Division of General Practice
View HealthInfoNet abstract
View full report (PDF - 1.5MB - large file warning!)

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2002

Department of Health and Community Services (2002)
Northern Territory AIDS/STD Program surveillance update. (Vol. 3 No 1, January-March 2002 & April-June 2002)
Darwin: Department of Health and Community Services
View report (PDF - 266KB)
View website: Department of Health and Community Services

Department of Health and Community Services (2002)
Northern Territory AIDS/STD Program surveillance update. (Vol. 3 No 2, July-September 2002 & October-December 2002)
Darwin: Department of Health and Community Services
View report (PDF - 224KB)
View website: Department of Health and Community Services

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Prior to 2000

NSW Health Department (1999)
Core competency standards for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander HIV/sexual health workers in NSW.
Gladesville, NSW: NSW Health Department
View report (PDF - 76.7 KB)

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Theses

Butler T (2001) 'Owned by nobody': health status and its determinants among New South Wales prisoners. Unpublished Doctor of Philosophy thesis, School of Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney.
View abstract (Australian Digital Thesis Program)
View full thesis (PDF - 1.9MB - large file warning!)

Kelly J (2004)
Yaitya tirka madlanna warratinna: culture nothing without language: a research project exploring what sexual health nurses need to know and do in order to meet the sexual health needs of young Aboriginal women in Adelaide, 2003-2005.
Unpublished Master of Nursing Thesis, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia
View abstract

Kolbe A (1990) The prevalence of sexually transmitted chlamydia trachomatis infections in an Australian and a Polynesian population. Unpublished Master of Public Health thesis, University of Sydney, Sydney.

Lubliner M (1991) Development and evaluation of the Northern Territory Aboriginal genital health (AIDS/STD) programme. Unpublished Bachelor of Medical Science thesis, Monash University.

Mak D (1997) Cervical screening in the Fitzroy Valley. Unpublished Master of Public Health thesis, University of Western Australia, Perth.
Mulvey G (1994?) Aspects of STD control on the Anangu Pitjantjatjara. Unpublished Master of Science thesis, Flinders University, Adelaide.

Schultz R (1990) The causes of preterm births to Aboriginal women in Western Australia: the role of maternal genital and urinary tract infections. Unpublished Bachelor of Medical Science thesis, University of Western Australia, Perth.

Thorn P (1989) A demographic and syphilis survey of a remote coastal Arnhem land Aboriginal community and associated outstations. Unpublished Master of Public Health treatise, University of Sydney, Sydney.

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Key references

  • ANCARD Working Party on Indigenous Australians' Sexual Health (1997) The National Indigenous Australians' sexual health strategy 1996-97 to 1998-99. A report of the ANCARD working party on Indigenous Australian's sexual health. Canberra, Commonwealth Department of Health and family Services, Australian Government Publishing Services.
  • Anderson I, Simmons, S (1999) HIV prevention and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander primary health care. Health Promotion Journal of Australia 9(1): 44-48
  • Australian Bureau of Statistics and Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (1999) The health and welfare of Australia's Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples 1999. Canberra, A joint program of the Australian Bureau of Statistics and the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare.
  • Bowden F (1995) Surveillance of sexually transmitted diseases in the Northern Territory of Australia. Venereology 8(1): 21-25.
  • Bowden FJ, Bastian I, et al. (1997) A community-based approach to the control of sexually transmitted diseases in the Northern Territory. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 21(5): 519-523.
  • Bowden F, Savage J (1998) Is the eradication of donovanosis possible in Australia? [editorial] Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 22(1): 7-8.
  • Corrie R, Bradford D (1995) Sexual health in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Venereology 8(1): 6-7.
  • Dore GJ, Kaldor JM (1998) Sexually transmissible diseases surveillance in Australia : towards a coordinated national system. Communicable Diseases Intelligence 22(4): 49-52.
  • Fairley CK, Bowden FJ, et al. (1997) Sexually transmitted diseases in disadvantaged Australian communities. The Journal of the American Medical Association 278(2): 117-118
  • Hart G (1993) Syphilis and gonorrhoea: current thinking. Australian Family Physician 22(2): 140-146.
  • Hendy S, Hudson B, et al. (1988) NVCA statement on Aboriginal health. Venereology 1(2): 69-70.
  • Miller P (1999) STD control in remote Aboriginal communities: a manual for clinic workers. Canberra, Commonwealth Department of Health and Aged Care,.
  • Moodie R. (1991) STD research and programs in Aboriginal communities. Venereology 4(1): 34 - 37
  • National Aboriginal Health Strategy Working Party (1989) A National Aboriginal Health Strategy. Canberra, Commonwealth Department of Aboriginal Affairs.
  • National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research (2000) HIV/AIDS, hepatitis C and sexually transmissible infections in Australia. Annual surveillance report 2000. Sydney, National Centre in HIV Epidemiology and Clinical Research, University of New South Wales.

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Bibliography

If you have access to EndNote bibliographic software you may download our STIs EndNote library containing relevant references from the Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet bibliographic database. If you use Netscape Navigator as your browser click the right mouse button and choose the 'save link as' option to save to your computer. If you use Internet Explorer you should choose the 'save target as' option.

Download STIs EndNote library (1.06MB - large file warning - compiled August 2007)

If you do not have EndNote you may view the associated reference lists:

View STIs reference list (Word doc - 320KB - compiled August 2007)
View STIs reference list (PDF - 195KB - compiled August 2007)

Alternatively you may wish to search the HealthInfoNet bibliographic database for references about STIs.

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Organisations

Australasia

International

Other information

Journals

Communicable Diseases Intelligence (CDI)
CDI is a quarterly publication of the Surveillance Section, Communicable Diseases and Biosecurity Branch, Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing. CDI aims to disseminate information on the epidemiology and control of communicable disease in Australia by providing current surveillance intelligence on communicable diseases in Australia accompanied by interpretation and expert commentary, publishing articles describing communicable disease surveillance and control and communicable disease epidemiology in Australia, and publishing significant strategic documents relevant to the surveillance and control of communicable disease in Australia.
View journal

Sexual Health
Sexual Health publishes original and significant contributions to the fields of sexual health including HIV/AIDS, Sexually transmissible infections, issues of sexuality and relevant areas of reproductive health. This journal is directed towards those working in sexual health as clinicians, public health practitioners, researchers in behavioural, clinical, laboratory, public health or social, sciences. The journal publishes peer reviewed original research, editorials, review articles, topical debates, case reports and critical correspondence.
View journal

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Conference proceedings

Currently no information has been collected and/or compiled

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Other

Better Health Channel : Aboriginal health - sexually transmissable infections
View website

HealthInsite
View website

Rural Health Education Foundation
The Foundation provides independent, accredited education services to general practitioners and other health professionals working in rural and remote Australia. Among its services it produces and broadcasts interactive distance education programs using satellite technology, the Internet, videos, DVDs and CD-ROMs. One of the broadcasts includes information about HIV: Talking Together - Contemporary Issues in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Health: HIV, Hepatitis and Sexual Health.
View website

Sexually Transmitted Diseases Services Clinic: Aboriginal people and sexually transmitted diseases
View website

Student Sexuality Information Service (SISS)
View website

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Related HealthInfoNet pages

For information on related health conditions and behaviours view the following HealthInfoNet webpages:

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Last updated: 2 June 2008